DentalCare Logo

The Dental Professional’s Role in the Opioid Crisis

Course Number: 692

PDF

References / Additional Resources

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Overdose Prevention. Data Resources. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  2. US Department of Health and Human Services. Office of the Surgeon General. Opiod Overdose Prevention. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  3. American Dental Association Statement on Opioids. 27 Feb 2018. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  4. McCabe SE, West BT, Veliz P, et al. Trends in Medical and Nonmedical Use of Prescription Opioids Among US Adolescents: 1976-2015. Pediatrics. 2017 Apr;139(4):e20162387. doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-2387. Epub 2017 Mar 20.

  5. Ward A, Jani T, De Souza E, et al. Prediction of Prolonged Opioid Use After Surgery in Adolescents: Insights From Machine Learning. Anesth Analg. 2021 Aug 1;133(2):304-313. doi: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000005527.

  6. Okunev I, Frantsve-Hawley J, Tranby E. Trends in national opioid prescribing for dental procedures among patients enrolled in Medicaid. J Am Dent Assoc. 2021 Aug;152(8):622-630.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2021.04.013. Erratum in: J Am Dent Assoc. 2021 Oct;152(10):A8. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2021.08.002. PMID: 34325778.

  7. Guy GP Jr,, Zhang K. Opioid Prescribing by Specialty and Volume in the U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2018 Nov;55(5):e153-e155. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2018.06.008. Epub 2018 Sep 12. PMID: 30219212; PMCID: PMC6327317.

  8. Maughan BC, Hersh EV, Shofer FS, et al. Unused opioid analgesics and drug disposal following outpatient dental surgery: A randomized controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016 Nov 1;168:328-334. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.016. Epub 2016 Sep 20.

  9. Herman C. The Minnesota Prescription Monitoring Program. Northwest Dent. 2011 Mar-Apr;90(2):33-5.

  10. McCauley JL, Leite RS, Melvin CL, et al. Dental opioid prescribing practices and risk mitigation strategy implementation: Identification of potential targets for provider-level intervention. Subst Abus. 2016;37(1):9-14. doi: 10.1080/08897077.2015.1127870. Epub 2015 Dec 16.

  11. Health Resources and Services Administration. Opioid Crisis. Accessed August 28, 2024

  12. Joint Economic Committee. The Economic Toll of the Opioid Crisis Reached Nearly $1.5 Trillion in 2020. Accessed August 28, 2024

  13. Levy B, Paulozzi L, Mack KA, Jones CM. Trends in Opioid Analgesic-Prescribing Rates by Specialty, U.S., 2007-2012. Am J Prev Med. 2015 Sep;49(3):409-13. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.020. Epub 2015 Apr 18.

  14. Shah A, Hayes CJ, Martin BC. Characteristics of Initial Prescription Episodes and Likelihood of Long-Term Opioid Use - United States, 2006-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017 Mar 17;66(10):265-269. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6610a1.

  15. Whyte AJ, Torregrossa MM, Barker JM, Gourley SL. Editorial: Long-Term Consequences of Adolescent Drug Use: Evidence From Pre-clinical and Clinical Models. Front Behav Neurosci. 2018 May 3;12:83. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00083.

  16. Miech R, Johnston L, O'Malley PM, et al. Prescription Opioids in Adolescence and Future Opioid Misuse. Pediatrics. 2015 Nov;136(5):e1169-77. doi: 10.1542/peds.2015-1364.

  17. McCauley JL, Gilbert GH, Cochran DL, Gordan VV, Leite RS, Fillingim RB, Brady KT; National Dental PBRN Collaborative Group. Prescription Drug Monitoring Program Use: National Dental PBRN Results. JDR Clin Trans Res. 2019 Apr;4(2):178-186. doi: 10.1177/2380084418808517. Epub 2018 Oct 29. PMID: 30931705; PMCID: PMC6900502.

  18. Lin HC, Wang Z, Boyd C, et al. Associations between statewide prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) requirement and physician patterns of prescribing opioid analgesics for patients with non-cancer chronic pain. Addict Behav. 2018 Jan;76:348-354. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.08.032. Epub 2017 Sep 5.

  19. Ansari B, Tote KM, Rosenberg ES, Martin EG. A Rapid Review of the Impact of Systems-Level Policies and Interventions on Population-Level Outcomes Related to the Opioid Epidemic, United States and Canada, 2014-2018. Public Health Rep. 2020 Jul/Aug;135(1_suppl):100S-127S. doi: 10.1177/0033354920922975.

  20. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drugs of Abuse. Opioids. Bethesda, MD. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  21. American Society of Addiction Medicine. Public Policy Statement: Definition of Addiction. Chevy Chase, MD. 15 Aug 2011. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  22. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Misuse of Prescription Drugs. Summary. Bethesda, MD. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  23. Vowles KE, McEntee ML, Julnes PS, Frohe T, Ney JP, van der Goes DN. Rates of opioid misuse, abuse, and addiction in chronic pain: a systematic review and data synthesis. Pain. 2015 Apr;156(4):569-576. doi: 10.1097/01.j.pain.0000460357.01998.f1.

  24. Muhuri PK, Gfroerer JC, Davies MC. Associations of Nonmedical Pain Reliever Use and Initiation of Heroin Use in the United States. CBHSQ Data Rev. August 2013. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  25. Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL, Kurtz SP. The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014 Jul 1;71(7):821-6. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.366.

  26. Carlson RG, Nahhas RW, Martins SS, Daniulaityte R. Predictors of transition to heroin use among initially non-opioid dependent illicit pharmaceutical opioid users: A natural history study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016 Mar 1;160:127-34. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.12.026. Epub 2016 Jan 4.

  27. Patrick SW, Davis MM, Lehmann CU, Cooper WO. Increasing incidence and geographic distribution of neonatal abstinence syndrome: United States 2009 to 2012. J Perinatol. 2015 Aug;35(8):650-5. doi: 10.1038/jp.2015.36. Epub 2015 Apr 30. Erratum in: J Perinatol. 2015 Aug;35(8):667.

  28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS. Injection Drug Use and HIV Risk. 03 Aug 2018. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  29. Ly KN, Xing J, Klevens RM, et al. The increasing burden of mortality from viral hepatitis in the United States between 1999 and 2007. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Feb 21;156(4):271-8. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-156-4-201202210-00004. Erratum in: Ann Intern Med. 2012 Jun 5;156(11):840.

  30. Edwards J. Yes, Bayer Promoted Heroin for Children—Here are the Ads that Prove It. Business Insider. 17 Nov 2011. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  31. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act. Public Acts of the Sixty Third Congress of the United States. Woodrow Wilson, President. 17 Dec 1914. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  32. Anti-Heroin Act of 1924. By the 68th United States Congress. Calvin Coolidge, President. 07 Jun 1924. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  33. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Intersecting Epidemics of Prescription Opioids and Heroin. Wilson M. Compton, MD, Deputy Director. 2015.

  34. Porter J, Jick H. Addiction rare in patients treated with narcotics. N Engl J Med. 1980 Jan 10;302(2):123. doi: 10.1056/nejm198001103020221.

  35. Portenoy RK, Foley KM. Chronic use of opioid analgesics in non-malignant pain: report of 38 cases. Pain. 1986 May;25(2):171-186. doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(86)90091-6.

  36. The Integrated Approach to the Management of Pain. NIH Consens Statement 1986 May 19-21;6(3):1-8. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  37. Acute Pain Management. Operative or Medical Procedures and Trauma AHCPR Clinical Practice Guidelines, No. 1 Acute Pain Management Guideline Panel. Rockville, MD. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR); 1992 Feb. Report No.: 92-0032. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  38. Pain: The Fifth Vital Sign. Department of Veterans Affairs. October 2000. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  39. American Pain Society. Principles of analgesic use in the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain, 4th ed. Glenview, IL. American Pain Society. 1999.

  40. Phillips DM. JCAHO pain management standards are unveiled. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. JAMA. 2000 Jul 26;284(4):428-9. doi: 10.1001/jama.284.4.423b.

  41. Baker DW. History of The Joint Commission's Pain Standards: Lessons for Today's Prescription Opioid Epidemic. JAMA. 2017 Mar 21;317(11):1117-1118. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.0935.

  42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers—United States, 1999-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011 Nov 4;60(43):1487-92.

  43. Meier B. In guilty plea, OxyContin maker to pay $600 million. New York Times. 10 May 2007. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  44. NPR. The Sacklers, Who Made Billions From OxyContin, Win Immunity From Opioid Lawsuits. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  45. Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL. Effect of abuse-deterrent formulation of OxyContin. N Engl J Med. 2012 Jul 12;367(2):187-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1204141.

  46. Cicero TJ, Ellis MS, Surratt HL, Kurtz SP. The changing face of heroin use in the United States: a retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014 Jul 1;71(7):821-6. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.366.

  47. Jones CM. Heroin use and heroin use risk behaviors among nonmedical users of prescription opioid pain relievers - United States, 2002-2004 and 2008-2010. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013 Sep 1;132(1-2):95-100. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.007. Epub 2013 Feb 12.

  48. Leung PTM, Macdonald EM, Stanbrook MB, Dhalla IA, Juurlink DN. A 1980 Letter on the Risk of Opioid Addiction. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 1;376(22):2194-2195. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1700150.

  49. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Overdose Prevention. US Dispensing Rate Maps. Accessed August 24, 2024.

  50. NIH. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Skewed Opioid Prescribing Patterns in the United States—A Few Providers Prescribe a Large Proportion of Opioids. 2021 Jan 21. Accessed August 28, 2024

  51. Suda KJ, Durkin MJ, Calip GS, et al. Comparison of Opioid Prescribing by Dentists in the United States and England. JAMA Network Open. 2019; 2(5): e194303.

  52. Congressional Research Service. Consumption of Prescription Opioids for Pain: A Comparison of Opioid Use in the United States and Other Countries. 2021 Jun 02. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  53. Onishi E, Kobayashi T, Dexter E, et al. Comparison of Opioid Prescribing Patterns in the United States and Japan: Primary Care Physicians' Attitudes and Perceptions. J Am Board Fam Med. 2017 Mar-Apr;30(2):248-254. doi: 10.3122/jabfm.2017.02.160299.

  54. Free MM. Cross-cultural conceptions of pain and pain control. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2002 Apr;15(2):143-5. doi: 10.1080/08998280.2002.11927832.

  55. Streltzer J, Wade TC. The influence of cultural group on the undertreatment of postoperative pain. Psychosom Med. 1981 Oct;43(5):397-403. doi: 10.1097/00006842-198110000-00002.

  56. Al-Harthy M, Ohrbach R, Michelotti A, List T. The effect of culture on pain sensitivity. J Oral Rehabil. 2016 Feb;43(2):81-8. doi: 10.1111/joor.12346. Epub 2015 Sep 15.

  57. Overview of Pain Management and Prescribing Policies. The National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws (NAMSDL). Jan 2016. Accessed August 28, 2024

  58. Paulozzi LJ, Strickler GK, Kreiner PW, et al. Controlled Substance Prescribing Patterns--Prescription Behavior Surveillance System, Eight States, 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2015 Oct 16;64(9):1-14. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.ss6409a1.

  59. Ventola CL. Direct-to-Consumer Pharmaceutical Advertising: Therapeutic or Toxic? P T. 2011 Oct;36(10):669-84.

  60. Korte G. White House pushes back against Super Bowl ad. USA Today. 08 Feb 2016. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  61. Tai-Seale M, McGuire TG, Zhang W. Time allocation in primary care office visits. Health Serv Res. 2007 Oct;42(5):1871-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00689.x.

  62. Morgan P, Everett CM, Hing E. Time spent with patients by physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants in community health centers, 2006-2010. Healthc (Amst). 2014 Dec;2(4):232-7. doi: 10.1016/j.hjdsi.2014.09.009. Epub 2014 Oct 31.

  63. Castillo-Carniglia A, González-Santa Cruz A, Cerdá M, Delcher C, Shev AB, Wintemute GJ, Henry SG. Changes in opioid prescribing after implementation of mandatory registration and proactive reports within California's prescription drug monitoring program. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021 Jan 1;218:108405. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108405. Epub 2020 Nov 12. Erratum in: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021 Apr 1;221:108606.

  64. Chua KP, Hu HM, Waljee JF, Brummett CM, Nalliah RP. Opioid prescribing patterns by dental procedure among US publicly and privately insured patients, 2013 through 2018. J Am Dent Assoc. 2021 Apr;152(4):309-317. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2021.01.001. Epub 2021 Feb 23. PMID: 33637299; PMCID: PMC8118387.

  65. Freund CR, VanDuine SM, Cullen JL. Opioid Prescription Trends in a US Dental School Clinic, 2014-2018: A Retrospective Study Using Electronic Health Record Data. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2021 Mar 12. doi: 10.1097/PHH.0000000000001282. Epub ahead of print.

  66. Scrivani SJ, Keith DA, Kulich RJ, et al. Pain Management for Dental Medicine in 2021: Opioids, Coronavirus and Beyond. J Pain Res. 2021 May 24;14:1371-1387. doi: 10.2147/JPR.S319373.

  67. Lavasani R, Chung M, Beatty A, et al. Opioid prescribing trends in a Veterans Affairs emergency department and dental clinic before and after implementation of opioid-prescribing guidelines. Ment Health Clin. 2020 Sep 30;10(5):270-274. doi: 10.9740/mhc.2020.09.270.

  68. Rigert JM, Napenas JJ, Wally M, et al. Dental pain management with prescription opioids by nondental healthcare professionals in a healthcare system network. J Public Health Dent. 2021 Jun 3. doi: 10.1111/jphd.12459. Epub ahead of print.

  69. Volkow ND, McLellan TA, Cotto JH, et al. Characteristics of opioid prescriptions in 2009. JAMA. 2011 Apr 6;305(13):1299-301. doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.401.

  70. National Survey on Drug Use and Health. The CBHSQ Report. Opioid Misuse Increases Among Older Adults. SAMHSA. 25 Jul 2017.

  71. Moore RA, Derry S, Aldington D, Wiffen PJ. Adverse events associated with single dose oral analgesics for acute postoperative pain in adults - an overview of Cochrane reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Oct 13;2015(10):CD011407. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011407.pub2.

  72. Moore RA, Wiffen PJ, Derry S, et al. Non-prescription (OTC) oral analgesics for acute pain - an overview of Cochrane reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Nov 4;2015(11):CD010794. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010794.pub2.

  73. Harris PA, Mukkamala B. Advocacy and Action to End the Opioid Epidemic by the AMA Opioid Task Force. AMA J Ethics. 2020 Aug 1;22(1):E718-722. doi: 10.1001/amajethics.2020.718.

  74. Moore PA, Hersh EV. Combining ibuprofen and acetaminophen for acute pain management after third-molar extractions: translating clinical research to dental practice. J Am Dent Assoc. 2013 Aug;144(8):898-908. doi: 10.14219/jada.archive.2013.0207.

  75. Doleman B, Leonardi-Bee J, Heinink TP, et al. Pre-emptive and preventive NSAIDs for postoperative pain in adults undergoing all types of surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jun 14;6(6):CD012978. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012978.pub2.

  76. Moore PA, Ziegler KM, Lipman RD, et al. Benefits and harms associated with analgesic medications used in the management of acute dental pain: An overview of systematic reviews. J Am Dent Assoc. 2018 Apr;149(4):256-265.e3. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2018.02.012. Erratum in: J Am Dent Assoc. 2018 Jun;149(6):413. Erratum in: J Am Dent Assoc. 2020 Mar;151(3):163.

  77. Becker DE, Phero JC. Drug therapy in dental practice: nonopioid and opioid analgesics. Anesth Prog. 2005 Winter;52(4):140-9. doi: 10.2344/0003-3006(2005)52[140:DTD]2.0.CO;2.

  78. National Academy of Medicine. First, do no harm: marshaling clinician leadership to counter to opioid epidemic. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  79. CDC. Opiods. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain. 2021 Feb 17. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  80. ADA. The Opioid Crisis. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  81. McCauley JL, Gilbert GH, Cochran DL, Gordan VV, et al. Prescription Drug Monitoring Program Use: National Dental PBRN Results. JDR Clin Trans Res. 2019 Apr;4(2):178-186. doi: 10.1177/2380084418808517. Epub 2018 Oct 29.

  82. iPrescribe. States with Mandatory PDMP Requirements. Accessed August 28, 2024

  83. Keith DA, Shannon TA, Kulich R. The prescription monitoring program data: What it can tell you. J Am Dent Assoc. 2018 Apr;149(4):266-272. doi: 10.1016/j.adaj.2018.02.015.

  84. Rasubala L, Pernapati L, Velasquez X, et al. Impact of a Mandatory Prescription Drug Monitoring Program on Prescription of Opioid Analgesics by Dentists. PLoS One. 2015 Aug 14;10(8):e0135957. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135957.

  85. Prescription Drug Monitoring Program Training and Technical Assistance Center. State PDMP Profiles and Contacts. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  86. Federation of State Medical Boards. Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs. A State-by-state Overview. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  87. Title 21 CFR – Part 1306-Section 1306.04(a). Purpose of issue of prescription. Fed Regist 1971; 7799. To be codified at 21 CFR §1306.04. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  88. Dispensing controlled substances for the treatment of pain. Fed Regist 2006; 71: 52716-52717. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  89. Fitzgibbon DR, Rathmell JP, Michna E, Stephens LS, Posner KL, Domino KB. Malpractice claims associated with medication management for chronic pain. Anesthesiology. 2010 Apr;112(4):948-56. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181cdef98.

  90. Nedelman M. Doctors increasingly face charges for patient overdoses. CNN. 31 Jul 2017. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  91. Berman JB, Li G. Characteristics of criminal cases against physicians charged with opioid-related offenses reported in the US news media, 1995-2019. Inj Epidemiol. 2020 Oct 1;7(1):50. doi: 10.1186/s40621-020-00277-8.

  92. ADA. Frequently Asked Questions for Opioid Prescribing. 2018 Nov 14. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  93. Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Med. 2005 Nov-Dec;6(6):432-42. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2005.00072.x.

  94. Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009 Feb;10(2):113-30. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2008.10.008.

  95. Manchikanti L, Abdi S, Atluri S, et al. American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines for responsible opioid prescribing in chronic non-cancer pain: Part 2--guidance. Pain Physician. 2012 Jul;15(3 Suppl):S67-116.

  96. McCauley JL, Back SE, Brady KT. Pilot of a brief, web-based educational intervention targeting safe storage and disposal of prescription opioids. Addict Behav. 2013 Jun;38(6):2230-5. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.019. Epub 2013 Feb 4.

  97. Hahn KL. Strategies to prevent opioid misuse, abuse, and diversion that may also reduce the associated costs. Am Health Drug Benefits. 2011 Mar;4(2):107-14.

  98. Siegler A, Tuazon E, Bradley O'Brien D, Paone D. Unintentional opioid overdose deaths in New York City, 2005-2010: a place-based approach to reduce risk. Int J Drug Policy. 2014 May;25(3):569-74. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.10.015. Epub 2013 Nov 8.

  99. Bartels K, Mayes LM, Dingmann C, et al. Opioid Use and Storage Patterns by Patients after Hospital Discharge following Surgery. PLoS One. 2016 Jan 29;11(1):e0147972. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147972.

  100. Lankenau SE, Teti M, Silva K, et al. Initiation into prescription opioid misuse amongst young injection drug users. Int J Drug Policy. 2012 Jan;23(1):37-44. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.05.014. Epub 2011 Jun 20.

  101. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Misuse of Prescription Drugs Research Report. How can prescription drug misuse be prevented? Jan 2018. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  102. FDA. Disposal of Unused Medicines: What You Should Know. 2020 Oct 01. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  103. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Department of Public Health. Bureau fo Susbstance Abuse Services. SBIRT: A step-by-step guide for screening and intervening for unhealthy alcohol and other drug use. Clinician’s Toolkit. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  104. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Chart of Evidence-Based Screening Tools and Assessments for Adults and Adolescents. 2021 May 06. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  105. Horn DB, Vu L, Porter BR, Sarantopoulos K. Responsible Controlled Substance and Opioid Prescribing. 2021 Aug 16. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan–.

  106. Siegel R, Cheung J. Dental schools add an urgent lesson: think twice about prescribing opioids. NPR. 2017 Sept 08. Accessed August 28, 2024.

  107. Naavaal S, Kelekar U, Shah S. Opioid and Nonopioid Analgesic Prescriptions for Dental Visits in the Emergency Department, 2015-2017 National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. Prev Chronic Dis. 2021 Jun 10;18:E58. doi: 10.5888/pcd18.200571.

  108. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic. Accessed August 28, 2024.

Additional Resources

0/20Next